DILUTE ATAU MENCAIRKAN
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Fenotipik Efek Disebabkan oleh Seri alel Beberapa dari dil-lokus (encer) dalam Budgerigar tersebut[Melopsittacus undulatus]By: UJI Onsman, koordinator Penelitian
MUTAVIRiset & Kelompok Saran, Belanda
Selama pengembangan bulu biasanya berpigmen, sel-sel pigmen juga dikenal sebagai melanosit, mensintesis melanosomes banyak (butiran pigmen) [13], yang didistribusikan oleh dendrit melanosit ke keratinosit tetangga.Warna mutasi mengubah sintesis pigmen normal atau dispersi pigmen. Salah satu efek fenotipik yang disebabkan oleh mutasi adalah pigmen dilusi, kuantitatif mengubah pigmentasi. The dil-lokus (encer) dalam Budgerigar adalah contoh yang sangat baik dari fenomena ini. Pengenceran pigmen disebabkan oleh, pengurangan jumlah melanosit, sejumlah mengurangi melanosomes per melanosit, melanosomes cacat atau dispersi pigmen yang buruk. Pemeriksaan mikroskopis dari wildtype (dil + / dil +) dan encer (dil / dil) melanosit juga, menunjukkan perkembangan dendrit akan berdampak serius pada encer burung. Melanosit wildtype ditandai oleh sejumlah besar dendrit mencapai dalam barbules dari bulu. Ini dendrit memainkan peran penting dalam penyebaran melanosomes dari melanosit ke keratinosit pada bulu berkembang. Namun, melanosit encer sering bola berbentuk dan sebagian besar kekurangan setiap dendrit yang berbeda. Kadang-kadang encer melanosit menunjukkan beberapa dendrit berkembang sangat pendek dan miskin. Oleh karena itu kurangnya dendrit secara dramatis mengurangi jumlah melanosomes tersebar dalam keratinosit bulu. Dalam Budgerigars dilusian jumlah melanosomes di barbules bulu yang turun sekitar 80%. Dalam greywing Budgerigars penurunan adalah sekitar 50%.
Kiri: starshaped yang normal melanosit dalam finch zebra [Poephila guttata] (magn. 800x) Kanan:. Melanosit adendritic dalam budgerigar encer [Melopsittacus undulatus] (magn. 800x)
Selama pigmentsynthesis, melanosomes dikeluarkan dari sitoplasma melanosit melalui dendrit nya. Sitoplasma biasanya mengandung jumlah sedang butiran pigmen. Melanosit encer kekurangan mekanisme untuk menghapus melanosomes dikembangkan baru dari sitoplasma mereka dan adventually ini akan berhimpun seluruh sel. Obstruksi ini merupakan hasil langsung dari dendrit kurang berkembang. Pigment distribusi di mamalia dapat dibagi menjadi fases berikut: Pengenalan dendrit, yang apocapation dari bagian atas dendrit, penarikan dendrit dan penyerapan atas dendrit ke keratinosit memungkinkan penyebaran butiran pigmen [6]. Keempat langkah menghubungkan dendrit melanosit dengan keratinosit tetangga. Kelompok ini total sel disebut unit melanin epidermal. Faktor encer menghalangi perkembangan dendrit normal menyebabkan pemisahan antara keratinosit dan sumber dari mana mereka mendapatkan butiran pigmen mereka. Hal ini akan mengakibatkan disfungsi dari unit melanin epidermal. Mutan pigmen beberapa dilusi telah dilaporkan di Budgerigars misalnya (Jerman) perunggu bera (a bz), yang (bahasa Inggris) pucat bera (pf), yang (Skotlandia) plum bermata bera (pl) dan memudar (fa). Namun, ethiology dari mutasi ini sangat berbeda dari faktor encer. Dalam keempat fenotipe kita harus berurusan dengan kualitatif mengubah pigmen tidak seperti seri alel beberapa lokus dil-menyebabkan penurunan kuantitatif butiran pigmen. Colordepth tidak hanya ditentukan oleh ada atau tidak adanya darkfactor (D) tetapi juga tergantung pada jumlah melanosomes tersebar serta produksi pigmen itu sendiri. Investigasi pada tingkat ultra (mikroskop elektron) menunjukkan mikrotubulus (panjang bercabang, silinder berongga) memerintahkan panjang, adalah struktur menonjol dalam dendrit melanosit. Hal ini telah ditemukan dalam melanosit dari unggas [2]. Tylney [15] memberikan bukti bahwa mikrotubulus bertanggung jawab atas cel-asimetri. Mereka adalah bagian dari kerangka yang mendalam cel-elemen seperti dendrit. Oleh karena itu bisa mungkin bahwa dil-lokus di Budgerigar mempengaruhi sintesis mikrotubulus dan dengan cara ini secara dramatis menghalangi perkembangan dendrit melanosit. Mutan pigmen lainnya menipiskan telah ditemukan misalnya faktor seks-linked pastel di kenari [10]. Pak Kop (1985) ditemukan selama pemeriksaan mikroskopis seks-linked melanosit pastel dalam kenari [Serinus canaria canaria] produksi pigmen granul hampir unhibited. Ini melanosit tidak mampu untuk membubarkan pigmen butiran mereka ke keratinosit tetangga. Hasil dari acara ini dalam kenari adalah selfdestruction dari melanosit dan bahkan kadang-kadang mentransfer melanosit benar-benar padat menjadi duri bulu. Pak Kop juga dijelaskan melanosit adendritic di opal (encer) kenari [8,9,11] suatu mutan resesif autosomal juga menyebabkan obstruksi dispersi pigmen.
Ludwig Auber [1] melaporkan penyerapan insidental dari melanosit adendritic di medula mengembangkan barbs dari bulu wingcovert di Budgerigars encer. Pemeriksaan mikroskopis saya bulu wingcovert encer menunjukkan cluster pigmen dan sejumlah besar makro-melanosomes [7,12]. Jelas ini "macroglobules melanin", seperti yang dimaksud dalam ilmu pengetahuan saat ini [11], berkembang selama obstruksi dispersi pigmen. Ini butiran pigmen raksasa [12] kadang-kadang 500 kali lebih besar dari butiran pigmen normal (melanosom) [7,12] dan dalam beberapa kasus dapat mengisi seluruh medula. Hal ini terutama kehadiran makro-melanosomes yang mencegah clearwings dari memiliki sayap yang jelas nyata.
Penjelasan simbol. Beberapa seri alel ditulis dengan satu simbol dasar untuk seluruh seri, alel individu yang ditunjuk dengan superscript a.
Beberapa seri alel lokus dil-in Budgerigar tersebut.
Fenotipe:
dil + / dil + = wildtype
dil gw / dil cw = FBC greywing
dil cw / dil cw = ClearWing
dil gw / dil gw = Greywing
dil / dil = Encerkan
Semua disajikan dalam keadaan homozigot kecuali untuk greywing FBC yang merupakan hasil interaksi antara yang dil gw dan cw dil alel.
Genotipe:
dil gw / dil cw = FBC greywing
dil gw / dil = Greywing / encer
dil gw / dil gw = Greywing
dil cw / dil cw = ClearWing
dil cw / dil = ClearWing / encer
dil / dil = Encerkan
Urutan dominasi:
dil +> dil gw <> dil cw> dil
Alel simbol:
gw = greywing
cw = ClearWing
Dalam seri alel ganda kita mengenal empat fenotipe mutan, sedangkan greywing FBC, ClearWing itu, greywing (intermediate) dan encer. Genetik enam genotipe yang berbeda telah ditunjuk.
Sebuah greywing FBC hanya dapat dibagi untuk ClearWing, ClearWing hanya dapat dibagi untuk encer.
Rumus dil gw / dil cw menuntut penjelasan. Seekor burung yang memiliki genotipe ini menunjukkan fenotipe greywing FBC karena bodycolor penuh ClearWing yang mendominasi bodycolor diencerkan dari greywing menengah, di sisi lain sayap abu-abu yang terakhir disebutkan mendominasi wingcolor "putih" atau "kuning" dari ClearWing yang . Ini tidak surprizing karena alel beberapa selalu bertindak tambahan terhadap satu sama lain [4,14].
Dalam seri alel ganda kita harus berurusan setidaknya dengan tiga alel mutan yang menyebabkan enam genotipe yang berbeda. Kami masih mencari bukti bahwa ada kemungkinan adalah alel mutan keempat pada lokus ini.Hal ini mungkin bisa menjelaskan sejumlah besar colourshades yang telah dilaporkan dari waktu ke waktu. Jika ada alel keempat semua genotipe yang mungkin akan menjadi 10, jika ada lima akan ada 15, jika ada enam akan ada 21 etc.etc. The dil-lokus di Budgerigar adalah contoh yang sangat baik untuk menunjukkan urutan dominasi antara pasangan gen dalam serangkaian alel ganda.
Ringkasan
Dasar genetik dan tindakan gen dari dil-lokus (Encer), suatu pigmen menipiskan resesif autosomal mutan Budgerigar tersebut, telah dibahas. Pemeriksaan bulu dan jaringan mata dengan mikroskop cahaya menunjukkan bahwa encer menghalangi perkembangan dendrit melanosit. Jadi butiran pigmen sangat sedikit tersebar ke tetangga keratinosit bulu. Kurangnya penyebaran menyebabkan fenotipe encer dan melanosit sendiri menjadi sesak dengan butiran pigmen. Dalam seri alel ganda kami menyadari setidaknya tiga fenotipe yang berbeda dan enam genotipe yang berbeda. Kemungkinan adanya alel keempat diusulkan meskipun kami masih menunggu bukti.
Dikonsultasikan dan dikutip sastra:
[1] Auber L., (1941) The Colours of Feathers dan Penyebab Struktural dalam Varietas dari Budgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus [Shaw] Tesis: Universitas Edinburg. [2] Brumbaugh JA, Chatterjee G., Hollander WF, (1972) Adendritic Melanosit: Sebuah Mutasi dalam Linkage Kelompok II Fowl tersebut. Journal of Keturunan Vol.63: pp19-25 [3] Brumbaugh JA, Hollander WF, (1966) Genetika Pola Warna Buff dan berkaitan Fowl tersebut. Unggas Sains Vol.45: pp451-457 [4] Carlson EA, (1959) Perbandingan Genetika Loci Kompleks Quart.Rev.Biol: pp33-67 [5] Hollander WF, Walther PL, (1962) Resesif "Lavender" di Bebek Muscovy. Journal of Keturunan Vol.53: pp81-83 [6] Klaus SN, (1969) Pigment transfer di Epidermis mamalia. Arch.Derm. Vol.100: pp756-762 [7] Konrad K., Wolff K., Honigsmann H., (1974) The melanosom Raksasa: Model of gila melanosom-morfogenesis. Journ.Ultrastr.Research Vol.48: pp102-123 [8] Kop FHM, (1983) Opaalfactor: Geen Structuurfactor maar Melanocytenfactor. De Vogelwereld jaargang 38: pp558-564 [9] Kop FHM, (1987) De Opaalfactor ONZE no.4 VOGELS: pp170-171 [10] Kop FHM, (1985) Het Kweken van Kanaries Zuid Boekproducties bv (Voliere Vademecum) [11] H. Nakagawa, Hori Y., Sato S., (1984) Sifat dan asal Macroglobule Melanin. Journal of Invest.Derm. Vol.83 no.2: pp134-139 [12] Onsman I., (1990) Erfelijkheid, vederstructuur en pigmentatie van mutaties beragam en mutatie-combinaties bij de Grasparkiet (Melopsittacus undulatus). Silabus Grasparkieten Simposium: pp20-25 [13] Onsman I., (1987) Terminologie te gebruiken bij melanine bevattende cellen en pigmentvorming. ONZE VOGELS no.5: pp218-219 [14] Stern C., (1930) Aditif mati Über Wirkung alel multipler. Multipele Allelie: pp261-290 [15] Tilney LG, (1968) Ordening unit subselular: The perakitan mikrotubulus dan peran mereka dalam pengembangan bentuk sel. Developmental Biology Suppl. 2: pp63-102 © UJI OnsmanMUTAVI Riset & Kelompok Saran
HALAMAN ASLI
Phenotypic Effects Caused by the Multiple Allele Series of the dil-locus (dilute) in the Budgerigar
[Melopsittacus undulatus]
By: Inte Onsman, Research coordinator
MUTAVI
Research & Advice Group, The Netherlands
During the development of normally pigmented feathers, pigment cells also known as melanocytes, synthesize numerous melanosomes (pigment granules) [13], that are distributed by melanocyte dendrites into neighbouring keratinocytes. Colour mutations alter normal pigment synthesis or pigment dispertion.One of the phenotypic effects caused by mutation is pigment dilution, a quantitative altering in pigmentation. The dil-locus (dilute) in the Budgerigar is an excellent example of this phenomenon.Pigment dilution is caused by; reduction of the total amount of melanocytes, a reduced amount of melanosomes per melanocyte, deformed melanosomes or poor pigment dispersion.Microscopic examination of wildtype (dil +/ dil + ) and dilute (dil / dil ) melanocytes as well, showed dendrite development to be seriously affected in dilute birds. Wildtype melanocytes are characterized by large amounts of dendrites reaching within the barbules of a feather. These dendrites play an important role in dispersing melanosomes from melanocytes to keratinocytes in developing feathers. However, dilute melanocytes are often spherical-shaped and mostly lack any distinct dendrites. Sometimes dilute melanocytes show some very short and poor developed dendrites. Therefore the lack of dendrites dramatically reduces the amount of dispersed melanosomes in feather keratinocytes. In diluted Budgerigars the amount of melanosomes in feather barbules is decreased by approximately 80%. In greywing Budgerigars the decrease is about 50%.
Left: starshaped normal melanocytes in a zebra finch [Poephila guttata] (magn. 800x). Right: adendritic melanocytes in a dilute budgerigar [Melopsittacus undulatus] (magn. 800x)
During pigmentsynthesis, melanosomes are removed from the cytoplasm of the melanocyte through its dendrites. The cytoplasm normally contains a moderate amount of pigment granules. Dilute melanocytes lack the mechanism to remove new developed melanosomes from their cytoplasm and adventually this will congest the entire cell. This obstruction is the indirect result of the poorly developed dendrites.Pigment distribution in mammals can be divided into the following fases:The introduction of dendrites, the apocapation of the top of the dendrite, withdrawal of the dendrite and the uptake of the top of the dendrite into keratinocytes allowing the dispersion of pigment granules [6]. These four steps connect the melanocyte dendrites with the neighbouring keratinocytes. This total group of cells is called the epidermal melanin unit.The dilute factor obstructs normal dendrite development causing a separation between the keratinocytes and the source from which they obtain their pigment granules. This will result in disfunction of the epidermal melanin unit.Several pigment dilution mutants have been reported in Budgerigars e.g. (German) bronze fallow (a bz), the (English) pale fallow (pf), the (Scottish) plum eyed fallow (pl) and the faded (fa). However, the ethiology of these mutations is quite different from the dilute factor. In these four phenotypes we have to deal with a qualitative altering of pigment unlike the multiple allele series of the dil-locus causing a quantitative decrease of pigment granules. Colordepth is not only determined by the presence or absence of the darkfactor (D) but also depends on the amount of dispersed melanosomes as well as pigment production itself.Investigations on the ultrastructural level (electron microscope) showed microtubules (long unbranched, hollow cylinders) ordered in length, are prominent structures in melanocyte dendrites. This has been found in melanocytes of the fowl [2]. Tylney [15] provided evidence that microtubules are responsible for cel-asymmetry. They are part of profound cel-skeleton elements like dendrites. Therefore it could be possible that the dil-locus in the Budgerigar affects the synthesis of these microtubules and in this way dramatically obstructs the development of melanocyte dendrites.Other pigment diluting mutants have been found e.g. the sex-linked pastel factor in canaries [10]. Mr. Kop (1985) found during microscopical examination of sex-linked pastel melanocytes in the canary [Serinus canaria canaria] an almost unhibited pigment granule production. These melanocytes were unable to disperse their pigment granules into neighbouring keratinocytes. The result of this event in canaries is selfdestruction of the melanocytes and even sometimes transfer of totally congested melanocytes into feather barbs. Mr. Kop also described adendritic melanocytes in opal (dilute) canaries [8,9,11] an autosomal recessive mutant also causing obstruction of pigment dispersion.
Ludwig Auber [1] reported the incidental uptake of adendritic melanocytes in the medulla of developing barbs from wingcovert feathers in dilute Budgerigars. My microscopical examinations of dilute wingcovert feathers showed pigment clusters and a large amount of macro-melanosomes [7,12]. Obviously these "melanin macroglobules", as they are referred to in science nowadays [11], develop during the obstruction of pigment dispersion.These giant pigment granules [12] sometimes are 500 times larger than a normal pigment granule (melanosome) [7,12] and in some cases could fill up the whole medulla. It is particularly the presence of these macro-melanosomes that prevents clearwings from having real clear wings.
Explanation of symbols.Multiple allele series are written with one basic symbol for the whole series, the individual alleles are designated with a superscript.
Multiple allele series of the dil-locus in the Budgerigar.
Phenotypes:
dil+/ dil + = Wildtype
dil gw/ dil cw = FBC greywing
dil cw / dil cw = Clearwing
dil gw / dil gw = Greywing
dil / dil = Dilute
All presented in homozygous state except for the FBC greywing which is the result of the interaction betweenthe dil gw and dil cw alleles.
Genotypes:
dil gw / dil cw = FBC greywing
dil gw / dil = Greywing / dilute
dil gw / dil gw = Greywing
dil cw / dil cw = Clearwing
dil cw / dil = Clearwing / dilute
dil / dil = Dilute
Order of dominance:
dil +>dil gw<>dil cw>dil
Allele symbols:
gw = greywing
cw = clearwing
In this multiple allele series we recognize four mutant phenotypes; the FBC greywing, the clearwing, the (intermediate) greywing and the dilute. Genetically six different genotypes have been designated.
An FBC greywing can only be split for clearwing, a clearwing can only be split for dilute.
The formula dil gw / dil cw demands an explanation. A bird having this genotype shows the FBC greywing phenotype because the full bodycolor of the clearwing dominates the diluted bodycolor of the intermediate greywing, on the other hand the grey wings of the latter mentioned dominates the "white" or "yellow" wingcolor of the clearwing. This is not surprizing because multiple alleles always act additionally towards one another [4,14].
In this multiple allele series we have to deal at least with three mutant alleles causing six different genotypes. We are still searching for evidence that there possibly is a fourth mutant allele at this locus. This could possibly explain the great number of colourshades that have been reported from time to time. If there is a fourth allele all possible genotypes would have been 10, if there were five there would be 15, if there were six there would be 21 etc.etc.The dil-locus in the Budgerigar is an excellent example for demonstrating the order of dominance between gene pairs in a series of multiple alleles.
Summary
The genetic basis and gene action of the dil-locus (dilute) , an autosomal recessive pigment-diluting mutant in the Budgerigar, has been discussed. Examination of feather and eye tissue with the light microscope showed thatdilute obstructs melanocyte dendrite development. Thus very few pigment granules are dispersed into neighbouring feather keratinocytes. The lack of dispersal causes the dilute phenotype and the melanocytes themselves become congested with pigment granules. In this multiple allele series we recognize at least three different phenotypes and six different genotypes. The possible presence of a fourth allele is proposed although we are still waiting for evidence.
Consulted and cited literature:
[1] Auber L., (1941) The Colours of Feathers and their Structural Causes in Varieties of the Budgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus [Shaw] Thesis: University of Edinburg. [2] Brumbaugh J.A., Chatterjee G., Hollander W.F., (1972) Adendritic Melanocytes: A Mutation in Linkage Group II of the Fowl. Journal of Heredity Vol.63: p.p.19-25 [3] Brumbaugh J.A., Hollander W.F., (1966) Genetics of Buff and Related Color Patterns in the Fowl. Poultry Science Vol.45: p.p.451-457 [4] Carlson E.A., (1959) Comparative Genetics of Complex Loci Quart.Rev.Biol: p.p.33-67 [5] Hollander W.F., Walther P.L., (1962) Recessive "Lavender" in the Muscovy Duck. Journal of Heredity Vol.53: p.p.81-83 [6] Klaus S.N., (1969) Pigment Transfer in Mammalian Epidermis. Arch.Derm. Vol.100: p.p.756-762 [7] Konrad K., Wolff K., Honigsmann H., (1974) The Giant melanosome: a Model of Deranged Melanosome-morphogenesis. Journ.Ultrastr.Research Vol.48: p.p.102-123 [8] Kop F.H.M., (1983) Opaalfactor: Geen Structuurfactor maar Melanocytenfactor. De Vogelwereld jaargang 38: p.p.558-564 [9] Kop F.H.M., (1987) De Opaalfactor ONZE VOGELS no.4: p.p.170-171 [10]Kop F.H.M., (1985) Het Kweken van Kanaries Zuid Boekproducties b.v. (Volière Vademecum) [11]Nakagawa H., Hori Y., Sato S., (1984) The nature and origin of the Melanin Macroglobule. Journal of Invest.Derm. Vol.83 no.2: p.p.134-139 [12]Onsman I., (1990) Erfelijkheid, vederstructuur en pigmentatie van diverse mutaties en mutatie-combinaties bij de Grasparkiet (Melopsittacus undulatus). Syllabus Grasparkieten Symposium: p.p.20-25 [13]Onsman I., (1987) Terminologie te gebruiken bij melanine bevattende cellen en pigmentvorming. ONZE VOGELS no.5: p.p.218-219 [14]Stern C., (1930) Über die additive Wirkung Multipler Allele. Multipele Allelie: p.p.261-290 [15]Tilney L.G., (1968) Ordening of subcellular units: The assembly of microtubules and their role in the development of cell form. Developmental Biology Suppl. 2: p.p.63-102 ©Inte OnsmanMUTAVI Research & Advice Group
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